INDIAN HISTORY

       

Data Range	phase	Era
5500-3300	Mehrgarh  II-VI (pottery Neolithic)	Regionalisation Era
3300-2600	Early harappan (early Bronze Age)
3300-2800	Harappan 1 (ravi phase)
2800-2600	Harappan 2 (kot diji phase, Nausharo I,  mehrgarh VII)
2600-1900	Mature Harappan (Middle Bronze age)	Integration Era
2600-2450	Harappan 3A (Nausharo II)
2450-2200	Harappan 3B
2200-1900	Harappan 3c
1900-1300	Late harappan (cemetery H, Late Bronze Age)	Localisation Era
1900-1700	Harappan 4
1700-1300	Harappan 5

 

MEHRGARH:

• Early farming village in mehrgarh, c.7000 BCE, with house built with mud bricks. (muse Guimet, paris). Mehrgarh, one of the most important Neolithic (7000 BC to 3200 BC) sites in archaeology.
• It has one of the earliest sites with evidence of fatming  (wheat and barley) and herding (cattle, sheep and goats) in south asia.
• It is located near the Bolan pass, to the west of the Indus River valley and between the present-day Pakistani cities of Quetta, Kalat and Sibi.
• The site was discovered in 1974 by an archaeological team directed by French archaeologist Jean-francois Jarrige.
• Early mehrgarh residents lived in mud brick house, stored their grain in granaries, fashioned tools with local copper ore, and lined their large basket emmer wheat, jujubes and dated, and herded sheep, goats and cattle. Residents of the later period (5500 BC to 2600 BCE) put much effort into crafts, including flint Knapping, tanning, bead production, and metal working. The site was occupied continuously until about 2600 BC.
• In April 2006, it was announced in the scientific journal Nature that the oldest (and first early Neolithic) evidence in human history for the drilling of teeth in vivo (i.e. in a living person) was found in Mehrgarh.

 

Pottery culture	characteristics	Period and sites
Orche Coloured  (OCP)	With Bright red slip and painted in black	Contemporary to the later half of the mature Harappan Civilization Flourished in the upper-Gangetic plains; Mayapur in Saharanpur district to saipai in Etawah
Block and red Ware (BRW)	Pottery are black colored inside the near the rim on outside, and red color over the rest of the body	Succeeded OCP and important sites are Atranjikhera, Hastinapur, Alamgirapur, and Ahichhatra.
Painted Grey Ware (PGW)	Pottery is wheel-made. painted in black and deep chocolate color	Succeeded BRW and first found at Ahichchatra in 1946. Important sites are: Bhagwanpura in Haryana, roper in Punjab, noth in rajasthan. In utter Pradesh it has found at Alamgiripur,  Ahichchhatra, Hastinapur, Atranjikheta, jakhera and Mathura.
Northern black polished were culture (NBPW)	Glossy surface, green black ware	Succeeded PGW and first discovered in Taxila in 1930. The important sites are Ropar in Punjab, Raja- karna-ka-Quila in Haryana, Jodhpur and noh in Rajasthan. Ahichchhatra, Hastinapur, Atranjikhera, Kausambi and sravasti in UP. Chandra ketugarth in West Bengal

 

INDIAN CONTRIBUTION TOWARDS MATHEMATICS

ARITHMETIC:
Decimal system-	Decimal units go back as far as the Indus valley civilization
Negative numbers-	Brahmagupta
Zero-	Hindu-Arabic numeral system
Hindu-arabic numeral system, the modern positional nottin numeral
Flotinf point numbers	Kerala school
Number theory:
Infinity-	Yajur veda
Transfinite numbers	Ancient jania mathematics
Irrational numbers	Sulba sutras
Geometry:
Sqare roots-	Sulba sutras, bakhashali approximation
Cube roots-	Mahavira
Pythagorean triples-	Sulba sutras; Baudhayana and Apastamba gave proofs of the Phythagorean theorem
Transformation-	Panini
Pascal’s triangle-	Pingala
Algebra:
Quadratic equations-	Sulba stras, Aryabhata, brahmagupta
Cubic equations-	Mahavira, Bhaskara
Quartic equations (biquardratic equations)-	Mahavira, bhaskara
Mathematical logic:
Formal grammars,formal language theory, the Panini-Backus from-	Panini
Recursion-	Panini
Fibonacci numbers-	Pingala
Earliest forms of morse code	Pingala
Logarithms, indides	Jaina mathematics
Trigonometry:
Trigonometryc functions	Surya siddhanta, aryabatta
Trigonometryc series	Madhava, kerala school
Algorithms alogorism	Aryabhatta, Brahamaguypta
Calculus:
Differential calculus	Bhaskara, madhava of sangamagrama, kerala school,jyeshtadeva
Integral calculus	Madhava of sanagama grama,kerala school
Mathematical analysis, including discoveries foundational to the development of calculus
Infinite series-	Madhava
Power series, Taylor series-	Madhava, kerala school

 
 

sites	location	sites	Location
Harappa	Ravi	Ropar	Sutlej
Mohenjodaro	Indus	Alamgirpur	Hindan
Lothal	Bhogwa	Balakot	Coastal
Kalibangan	Ghaggar	Allahdino	Indus(coast)
Chanhudaro	Indus	Desalpur	Bhadar
Suktagendor	Arabian sea	Rojdi	Bhadar
Banawali	Saraswati	Manda	Chenab
Kot Diji	Indus	Daimabad	Pravara

 

               ORGIN OF THE VEDIC PERIOD

Vedic culture was functionally different from that of Mohenjodro. From a purely linguistic point of view, the Rig veda in its present form cannot be  dated much earlier than 1000B.C. some of suggested that the Aryans certainly stayed for some times in general Asia. The name of the four vedic gods: Mitra, Varuna, indra and Nasatys occurring in the records and has been discovered at Bhogaz-koi (mittani) in around 1400 BC. This inscription is of great relevance. The kassites inscription has also shown indo-iranian settlements of Aryans; Edward Mayor has tried to show that point from which those indo-iranians began to spread easteard into the Punjab and west tested indo-European language (Greek) has failed to make out a definite case for and European original home of the Aryans. The reasons being: 1. No common vocabulary has been found; and 2. the first greek speaking people of Greece were the Aehaiang appeared in the scene around 1200BC. After the decline of the Myanean Civilization, they adopted Myanean culture. The indo-ERopean speaking tribes should, therefore, have entered Greece for the first time only about 1200B.C., but there is nothing to tell us from religious reason precisely that Greek tribes have come. Therefore the similarities between the indo-european and phinno and Urigian groups are much that cannot be brushed aside and at the same time establishing a common origin is distant goal. There are a number of scholars who have record indigenous origin of the Aryans: 1. M.M. Ganganath jha has tried to prove that the original home was brahamarishi-Desa; 2. D.S. Triveda suggests that the original home of the Aryans was in the region of the river Devika in Multan; 3.L.D.kalla advocates the claims of Kashmir and the Himalayan region.

4. the sapt-sindh concept given by A.C. Das. THERE ARE TWO SCHOOLS OF THOUGHT: (a) Foreign school of thought; (b) indigenous schools of thought; Foreign Schools of thought: balganagadhar tilak- arctic (Aryans come from here); became it mentions 6 months of each day and night; J.P.Roar- Aryans were inhabitants of bacteria Max Muller- Aryans inhabitants of central Asia; Prof. says- Aryans were inhabitants of Caspian sea; Edward mayor- Aryans were inhabitants of pameer Brandstein- Aryans were inhabitants of Iran; Harzfield- Aryans were inhabitants of Turkistan; P.Giles- Aryans were inhabitants of Hungry Austria and Bohemia; Arguments in favour of indigenous school: There in no evidence to show that the ved Aryans were foreigners; The literacy evidences have indicated that Aryans were local inhabitants of sapt-sind region; The linguistic affinities are not positive proof Aryans immigration. The Vedic Sanskrit has largest number of vocals found in the Aryan languages; The sacrificial rituals had long been established before the completion of samhita. There fore, home of soma, the munjavant indicated the Aryans had orgin somewhere in Punjab. The fusion berween the greek languages and languages is not yet firmly established; Tiger has not been mentioned in Rig Veda But lion has been mentioned; The geographical area clearly shows that Punjab and nearly regions constitude the home of vedi people. Therefore, we see that both the school has failed to provide a plausible theory regard the origin of Vedic people.

 
 

Important officials (Hierarchy in court):- Brahmin-                 priest; Rajanya-                  king; Mahisi-                    chief queen Parivakti-                 neglect wife of the king; Vavata                      favorate queen; Senani-                      chief commander in-chief; Sangrahitra              treasurer Ksattr-                       chamberlain Suta-                          chorister; Vaishya-gramini-              head of villager group of village Bhagaduha-                       revenue colletor Taksan                                 chariot maker’ Rathakara-                          chariot maker; Aksavapa-                            disk thrower or                                                                                              distribution of land property Govikrna of Govikarta –kings compranion of chess Six important officials: Suta     -                 charioteer Gramini  -               head of vis; Ksattr       -             chamberlain; Sangrahitra    -       treasurer; Bhagaduha  -          revenue colleter; Aksavapa -              Disk thrower and distributor of land                                                                                                                                                                                                                          property (one group)        Superintendent of grambling.

 

Words originated from the word GAU (cow) Goshu                Battle Gavishti               Battle Gavyat                 Battle Godhuli                time measuring unit Gavyuti                 Distance measuring unit Gocharman          Distance measuring unit Gauri                      Buffalo Goghna                  guest Cow  was also called as aghnya

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

                          VEDIC LITERATURE

VEDA	RIGVEDA	SAMAVEDA	YAJURVEDA	ATHARVAVEDA
No.of mandals and mantras	10 mandals	1810 hymns	40 mandals 200 Hymns
Divisions	none	None	Krsna and shukla	Paiplad and shaunak
Brahmana	1.kaushitiki/sankhayana 2.Aittreya	1.tandaymasha 2.panchavis 3.gaimini 4.Chhandyogya 5.Udgatri	1.Taitterya(krshna) 2.sathpath (shukla)	1.Gopath
Aranyaka	1.kausjitiki 2.Aittreya	None	1.Taitterya	None
Upanishad	1.kaushitiki 2.Attreya	1.ken 2.Chhandyoga	1.Taitterya (krsna) 2.Kath (krsna) 3.Svetasvar (krsna) 4.Brihadaranyaka (shukla) 5.Isa (shukla)	1.Manduka 2.manduka 3.prasna
upaveda	Ayurveda	Gandharvaveda	Dhanurveda	shilpaveda

 
 
 
 
 

mahajanapadas	captial	Details
anga	Champa or malini	Champa was one of the six principals cities of india; a trade and commerce centre and its merchants sailed to distant suvarnabhumi. In its neighborhood, there was a famous tank named gaggra and two importat towns were Bhaddiya and assapura.
magadha	Giribrija	One of the leading mahajanpadas and started the policy of imperliasiam by conquering most of the areas
kashi	varanasi	Varuna and asi were the important rivers.kisala conquered kasha some time before Buddha.
kosala	Sravasti/kusavati	Bounded by the sadanira (Gandak) river, important king was prasenjit and vidudabha; important towns were saketa, sravasti, and Ayodhya.
vatsa	kaushinara	Kurus or bharatas migrated to vatsa and king Udayana was most powerful. Udayana had strong passion for catching elephants.
avanti	mahissati	According to pali canonical texts Ujjayani was the capital of king chanda pradyota
malla	kushinara	Pava was the chief town; the river of Hirannavati. Buddha died during the mallas
Vajji or vrjii	Vaishali (HQ)	A confederacy consisted of eight or nine clans or which videhans, the lichchchhavis, the jnatrikas and the vijji were important, sidharata, father of mahavira belonged to jnatrika
kuru	indraprastha	Important of korvya, isukara kuru and matrimonial relations with the yadavas, the Bhojas and the panchalas. Jatkas mention about king Dhnanjaya
panchala	Ahhicchatra/kampilya	Roughly corresponds to the modern baduan, Farrukhabad and important king was Chulani Brahamadatta has been mentioned in Ramayana.
surasena	mathura	King avantiputras to the first among the chief disciples of Buddha
assaka	potana	Asska and mulaka are represented as two andhaka of Andhra territories. Bhattaswami, the commentator of Arthashatra identifies asmaka with maharastra.  Important kings were Brahamadatta and aruna.
chedi	suktimati	It roughly corresponds to modern bundelkhand. According to the haththigumpha inscription of kharvela branch of chedi founded a royal dynasty in kalinga.
gandhar	texila	King pukkusati was contemporary of magadhan king Bhibisara.
kamboj	Rajpur,hatak	It was included in the uttarpatha. Hiuen tsang identified it with rajapura. It is situated in the Hazara district of the North-west Frontier province.
matsya	Viratnagar	Corresponds to modern territory of jaipur; king sahaja ruled over the chedis and the matsyas. Matsya once formed apart of the kingdom of chedi.

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

       

                                    MIDDLE KINGDOMS OF INDIA

timeline	Northern empire	Southern dynasties	Northwestern kingdoms
6th centurry BC	magadha		Gandhara
5th centuryBC	Shishunaga dynasty Nanda empire	Pandyan cholas	(Persian Rule) (greek Conquests)
4th century BC	kalinga	Chera
3th century BC	Maurya empire	Satavahanas
2ndcentury BC	Sunga empire		Indo-greeks
1stcentury BC	Kuninda kingdom
2ndcentury			Indo-sassanians
3rd centuries		kalabharas	Kidarite kingdom
4th centuries	Gupta empire	pallavas
5th centuries			Indo-hephthalities
6th centuries		Chalukyas
7th centuries
8th centuries	Pala empire	rashtrakutas	(Islamic invasion)
9th centuries			Shahi
10th centuries			Islamic dynasty
11th centuries			Islamic dynasty
1st century AD			Indo-scythians Indo-partians Kushan empire Western satraps

 
 
 

Ashyksha or superintendents: Arthashastra has mentioned various superintendent (Adhyaksha); These officials supervise the revenue coming from a particuoar source; The officerswere also responsible for the administration of theie departments; They were assisted by different committees and under different officers; The adhykshas mentioned in  the arthashastra are as follows:- Nagvandhyaksha-                    chief elephant forester; ‘koshadhyaksha                      chief superintendent of treasury ‘akardhykshaa’-                       controller of mining and metallurgy; ‘Lohadhyksha’-                        chief superintendent of metals; ‘Lakshmandhyaksha               chief master of mint; ‘Khanyadhyaksha’-                  chief superintendent of mines; ‘Lavnadhyksha’ -                      salt commissioner; ‘Swarnadhyaksha’ -                 chief superintendent of precious metals and jwellery; ‘Kostagradhyaksha’ -                  chief superintendent of ware houses; ‘panyadhyaksha’-             chief controller of state trading; ‘Kanyadhyaksha’-             superintendent of forest produce; ‘Ayudhagaradhyaksha’-   chief of ordinances; ‘Panyadhyksha’-                chief of weight and measure; ‘Manadhyaksha’-               chief superintendent and time keeper; ‘Shukadhyaksha’-               chief superintendent of custom ad octroi; ‘Sutradhyaksha’-                 chief textile commissioner; ‘Sitadhyaksha’-                    chief superintendent of crown’s land; ‘suraadhyaksha’-                 chief controller of Alcoholic beverages; ‘Sunadhyaksha’-                  chief protector of animals and controller                        animal slaughter ‘Ganikadhyaksha’-               chief controller of entertainers; ‘Navadhyaksha’-                   chief controller of shipping; Navadhyaksha                       chief controller of port and harbor; Godhayaksha’-                       chief superintendent of cow herds; ‘Ashwadhyaksha’-                 chief commander of the cavalry; ‘Hsatadhyaksha’-                   chief commander of elephant corps; ‘Rathadhyaksha’-                   chief commander of the chariot corps; ‘patyadhyksha’-                      chief commander of theinfantry; ‘Mudradhyaksha’-                  chief passport officers; ‘Vivitadhyaksha’-                    chief controller of pasture land; ‘Dhyutadhyaksha’-                  chief controller of Gambling; ‘samasthadhyaksha’-             chief controller of private trade; ‘Bandanagradhyaksha’-           chief superintendent of jail; ‘Devatadhyaksha’-                   chief superintendent of temples; ‘Bandanagradhyaksha’-           chief superintendent of jail; ‘Devatadhyaksha’-                     chief superintendent of temples; Arthashastra mentions about 18 departments of the government known as ‘Tirthas’;

 
 

Purpose of the appointment of the Dhamma Mahamattas:- To spread the policy of dharma among various social group including women; To work for the welfare and happiness of those devoted to Dhamma; To deal with the affairs of the various sects, i.e. they perform the religious duties; In every 5 years interval, the Mahamattas would inspect the judiciary functioning hence they  also performed some judicial functions; Itjhakka Mahamatta:- He controlled the ‘harem’ and ether department involving women; He worked for the welfare of the women; He was the administrative officer of the harem; Amta Mahamatta:- They were the officers who worked among the frontier people and less civilized tribes; They were incharge of the administration of these areas; In the 2nd rock edict, ashoka expects the amata- mahamatta to create a confidence in the people about his policies and asserts that the harder tribes are like his children;

 
 

HISTORY OF THE LAT6ER MAURYA

According to vayupurana, asoka was followed by: Kunala- ruled for 8 years; Bandhupatila- ruled 8 years; Indrapalita- ruled 10 years; Devavaruna- ruled 7 years; Satadhanu- ruled for 8 years; Brahadratha- ruled for 7 years; The dynasty ended with Brahadratha as he was assassinated by pushyamitra sunga, who founded the sunga dynsty. According to the vishnupurana, asoka was followed by: Dasaratha –ruled for 8 years; Samprati – ruled for 9 years; Satadhavan – ruled for 8 years Brahadratha – ruled for 7 years; Accoding to the matsy purana, asoka was followed by: Suryasas Dasaratha Samgata Salisuka Somavarman Satadhanvan Brahadratha According to ashokavadana, asoka was followed by-samprathi, vrihaspati, virsena, pushadharman, pushyamitra; The successors of asoka were different in different sources, hence it is matter of great controversy about who sat on the throne after asoka; According to vayu and brahamanada, asoka was succeeded by his son kunala; According to ashokavadana, asoka was succeeded by his son samprati, who was succeeded by vrihaspati; According to rajatarangini, asoka was a succeeded byt jhaluka;

According to marasya purana, asoka was succeeded by his grandson darsatha; Vishnupurana is the only soursewhere where suyasas has been mentioned as the successors of asoka and dasaradha came after suyasas; Polybius a greek writer mentioned that in 206 BC, antionchus, the king of Syria had friendship with sophagasenos (subhagasena),who was the Indian king; Dasradha has also been mentioned in the nagarjuni hills, which he gave to the ajivika sects. These in scripttions mention that the caves were dedicated on his  accession and they were i9nccribed soon after the reign of asoka clear from the brahmini script and tone of these inscriptions; Samaprati is referred to as son of kunala in both the Buddhist and the jaina text and as the successor of asoka; Jaina literature mentions samprati as the grandson of asoka, ruling from Ujjain and pataliputra; Jaina literature also mentions about his conversion to jainsm by suhastin; Ashokavadana to matsaya and vishnupurana asoka had divided his kingdom into two parts (1) easten part governed by dastatha; (2)western part- governed by kunala; In nagarjuni hill cave to ajivika saint, shoes name was vishvajhopra; Gargisamhita has also mentioned a mauryan king salisulka; Salisulka has been mentioned in the vishnupuranam as the fourth successor of asoka; According to the various puranas, the mauryan dynasty lasted for 137 years; Since the first three mauryans ruled for 85 years, it leaves only 52 years to be ruled by the later mauryas; The mauryan rule came to an end in about 184 BC.

 

Religion miscellaneous

The Chandragupta- kumaradevi gold coins do not the Bhagavata emblem, the garuda- dhvaja. Chandragupta II- mentioned as chakra-vikramah Kumaragupta I called himself parma-bhagavata, his peacock type coins also suggest the krttikkeya influence on him. Vainya-gupta dvadasaditya, according to gunaigher inscription, was a siva devotee. One of the earliest references of the lakulisa- pasupatas found in an inscription Chandragupta II at Mathura Bharadvaja has wtitten a commentary on vatsayana, is described as pasupatacarya. Matamauyars were saiva, chedi and Haihaya of Tripuri patronized, important followers were rudrasambhu, prabodhaya, vyomasiva Athrava veda and satapatha brahmana mentiones 8 nemes of rudhra. Ganesa has been menjtioned as maha harida savarna, Santana,navanita and unmatta- uchchchishta and maha vinayaka, siddhidata, vighnesvara Karttikeya, also known as skanda, kumara and subramanya. The earliest mention has been found under the name skanda is perhaps found in samavidhana brahamana. Besanagar inscription of 2nd BC refers to a god named vasudeva as devadeva and Ghosundi inscription of the 1st BC alludes himself in five forms (1) para,(2)vyha (3)vibhava, (4) antaryami, (5)Archha Vishnu has been divided into three images: (1)Dhruvaberas: immovable images, (2) Vyuhas:emanatory forms and (3) Vibhavas: incaranatory forms. Saiva agamas’s emblem was manushalinga which is consisted of three parts (1)brahambhaga (2)vishnubhaga(3)rudrabhaga.

 
 

Gautama Buddha 563- 483 B.C Caste:                                  :kshatriya Real name:                           sidhrtha Born:                                      563 BC according to the Cantonese tradition and b                        other Chinese tradion Father’s name:                      suddhadhana, elected chief of sakya republic Place:                                        kapilvastu/lumbini/rummindei Mother:                                    mohamaya, princess of kosalan dynasty Step mother:                           prajapati gautami, she marked the beginning of the nuns system in Buddhism. Wife:                                        yasodhara, daughter of sakya noble: according to buddhavasmsa   bhadkhasa was the name of his wife; according to jatka her name of his wife; according to jataka her name was Bimba according to lalitavistara her name was gopa Cousin:                                      devdutta, envious cousin of Buddha, who created schism Teacher:                                    asita was first Guru; Ardha kalan, after renunciation, he taught Upanished to him, Udraka Ramaputra was also teacher, met near Rajagriha Horse:                                         kantaka Charioteer:                                 Channa Mara:                                           Devi who disturbed Guatam Buddha in his meditation Belattha:                                     the merchant to whom Buddha in his meditation Mahabhiniskramana:               great going forth and became ascetic Ananthapindika:                       a rich merchant to whom budha met on his way to Rajgir Venuvana:                                  his health deteriorated Wandering:                                 7 years attained enlightenment at the age of 35 at bodha gaya at niranjana river Death:                                            sukramaddhava, death caused by meal of pork died during the dynasty of mallas Died in 483 BC- at kusinagar at kasia, his death is called parinirvana.

 

TIBETAN LISTS VISITORS                KING                      PERIOD Materechta            kanishka               1st AD Nagrjuna                 udayibhadra        2nd AD Chandragomin       virarantnakriti     6th AD Jinatri                       chittratnausodhan karma                                                                  11th AD Bodhibhadra            gurulekha            11th AD Sajjana                       suksmajnana       11th AD Dipankara                Nyayapata             11th AD Srijana             Jaganmitra Nanada   Jayachandra        12th AD

 

Symbolism Symbolism          meaning lotus and bull                  birth Horse                                marriage and birth of a son Te Bodhi tree                   great renunciation Wheel                                            Wheel Dhrmchakras                                             Containing 4 noble path                                             And 8 fold path                                             Enlightenment The stupa                          death Marketed by rummmmendei pillar ofashoka                                                  Birth Birth + enlightenment           vaishaka purnima

 

date	place	chairman	king	Development
1st 483 BC	Raja, sattapami cave	mahakasyap	Ajatshatru	Vinaya pitata complied by Upali about rules Sutta pitaka complied by ananda, about relating to sermons on matters
2nd, 383 Bc	vaisali	subbakami	Mahakalasoka	Schism took place between sthaviras and mahasanghikas;
3rd, 236 years after the death of Buddha / 250BC	patliputra	Tissa	asoka	The third pitaka complied: Abhidamma pitak on Metaphysics and philosophy and Buddhism became Tripitaka
4th, 1st  Ad	Kashmir(kundalavana	Vasumitra asvagosha	kanisha	Schism:Mahayana and Hinayana